Principles of Environmental Science Essay Example for Free

Principles of Environmental Science Essay Principals of Environmental Science Joshua Hammack ENV/100 February 4, 2013 Christopher Bertram Principals of Environmental Science Environmental science is the relationship between the earth and all living things and organisms that use the earth’s resources to sustain life. Environmental science is also the ongoing study of the environment and all of its interconnected systems. The style of research performed by environmental scientists is very diverse. Also, environmental science is composed of many components such as geology, physics, social science, meteorology, and biology. Social science looks more at how humans and animals interact within the environment and the effects they have on one another. â€Å"Environmental scientists try to establish general principles about how the natural world functions. They use these principles to develop viable solutions to environmental problems—solutions that are based as much as possible on scientific knowledge† (M. C. , 2009). Technology and science affect the problems and solutions of today’s society both positively and negatively. Take for instance the invention of the car by Karl Friedrich Benz in 1885, (Bruno, 1997) while there was a demand for better transportation as people became more sophisticated and wanted to travel further than possible on a horse it created a demon for the environment to fight. Today, worldwide there are more than 1 billion passenger vehicles on the roadways, (Tencer, 2011) and with an increase in automobiles comes added pollution from oil, grease, petroleum, and rubber, but not only the cars produce pollution. The manufacturing does equal amounts of damage from steel mills, rubber plants and stamping plants. With growing population these numbers will begin to rise. At the same time the technologies that are contributing to the Worlds pollution problems are also being used to help solve the problem by creating means necessary to obtain valuable data to aid in the solution. For example studying marine life in the depths of the ocean would not be possible without using motorboats to reach these remote locations. The double edge sword being that the boat itself pollutes the water. Finding a balance between the neccessity of technology and the over consumption of technology is a slippery slope, but it is crucial to the sustainability of the environment. â€Å"Ecologist Garrett Hardin (1915–2003) is best known for his 1968 essay â€Å"The Tragedy of the Commons. † In it he contended that our inability to solve complex environmental problems is the result of a struggle between short-term individual welfare and long-term environmental sustainability, the ability to meet humanitys current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs† (M. C. , 2009). It is essential that society studies the sustainability of our resources not only so they can be preserved, but to aid in the prediction of growth and evolution. Some countries like the US, Canada, Japan, and Europe are highly developed countries that are consuming the majority of the worlds sustainable consumption. As the under developed countries such as Haiti, yemen, and Sudan begin to grow they will take on a larger share of the sustainable consumption. Without monitoring the development from an environmental point of view the worlds population could literally eat themselves out of house and home. â€Å"Those who dont know history are doomed to repeat it. † –Edmund Burke. Looking back through history the United States has not always been the best stewards to the land. In fact, through many mistakes the lessons of Mother Nature have been ingrained into our culture. The concept of conservation and preservation was brought about by a group of men in the mid 1800’s through the early 1900’s. Benjamin Harrison (1833–1901), Grover Cleveland (1837–1908), William McKinley (1843–1901), and Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919) were all the first to use the Forest Reserve Act, this act was put into affect in 1881 which gave the president the authority to establish forest reserves on public, federally owned land (M. C. , 2009). Before this the lands in the western United States were falling victim to deforestation with 160 billion board foot of lumber being cut from 1860, just after the Civil War to 1900. Throughout history the government has been very proactive in establishing programs to help preserve and protect the natural resources. Until 1970, the voice of the environmentalist was nothing but a whisper that was only heard through two organizations, the Sierra Club and the National Wildlife Federation (M. C. , 2009). When Denis Hays, a Harvard graduate student was influenced by a former Wisconsin senator to organize the first recognized Earth Day it bacame a gateway for informing the public on sustainability, consumption and what we needed to do to preserve our environment. Eventually Earth Day became a way to show people that their little contribution to reducing their carbon footprint as much as possible was magnified greatly when coupled with others efforts. â€Å"By Earth Day 1990, the movement had spread around the world, signaling the rapid growth in environmental consciousness† (M. C. , 2009). In conclusion, it is inevitable that the world as a whole will continue to grow, the population will increase, and resources will be exhuasted. It is for that reason the human race must be aware of what is coming.

The Origins of Voodoo Essay examples -- Religion Vodun Vodou

The Origins of Voodoo Voodoo is a religion rich in heritage and founded in faith and community. The religion has been villainized by western culture and has been wrongly portrayed as malignant and dangerous. The religion is not founded in any of the (known) "black magics" or fear popularized by Hollywood films, but rather it is based on balance and tradition. The religion is not something that should be encountered with inhibition or fear induced from childhood horror stories, but embraced for its strength and history. Voodoo originated as an amalgam of African religions during the slave trade. As slaves were shipped from Africa to the Caribbean, groups of slaves sharing a similar heritage were broken apart to prevent any sense of community or bond between them. With no connection beyond the tortures of slavery, the slaves had little chance to establish any relationship to their fellow captives. They came from lifestyles far removed so one of the only opportunities for a common bond came from sharing their deep faiths (Erikson). Despite the fact that the religions were just slightly connected, these native faiths allowed an intellectual (as can be, given the narrow scope) exchange and common bond. With several different religions present in any given group of slaves, the majority of slaves adapted by holding a service which accepted all lineages and respected all ancestral lines of faith, both aspects being of primary concerns in African religions. These services were effective in blending the rite s and practices of many religions into one combination religion. This adaptation effectively created a new religion, voodoo, which translates to ?spirit? in several African languages (Bout). Voodoo allowed the slaves to feel like part of their own group. This new-found unity was viewed as a threat to the French and British plantation owners of the newly settled colonies. As a means to quell the religious unity, the plantation owners forbade the practice of religion and punished slaves who attempted to pursue voodoo. Catholicism was presented as an alternative to voodoo. Instead of accepting the Catholic religion, many slaves only incorporated it into the newly established voodoo religion. Catholicism remains an important aspect of voodoo, and several of its methods and rituals are currently practiced as. The punishments of practicing voodoo forced voodoo to ... ...on PCP (no personal experience here, I assure you). The individual would also be dependent on the priest to supply their now life-sustaining drug. This dependence is effectively being ?bound to a master?s will.? In extreme cases the ?zombie? would go through physical effects of drug addiction which leaves the individual looking like a corpse. Voodoo has been greatly misrepresented in American society. It is an honorable and thoughtful religion that should be commended for it?s tenacity through history and it?s involvement in the lives of so many. Voodoo is not the stuff myths and horror movies; rather it is a peaceful, happy, and loving religion that can benefit many more than only those devout to Obatala. Anyone who pursues knowledge owes it to themselves to give voodoo a trial run. Works Cited Bout, Racine Sans. ?The Vodou Page.? AOL.com. 1999. http://members.aol.com/racine125/ (4 Oct. 2001) Erikson, Jacobs. "Voodoo." Compton?s Encyclopedia. Vers. 3.04. 1995. "Vodun (a.k.a. Voodoo)." Religious Tolerance. 2001. http://www.religioustolerance.org/voodoo.htm (4 Oct. 2001). "Voodoo (Vodou) Encyclopedia." Arcana. 2000. http://www.arcana.com/voodoo/ (5 Oct. 2001)

Organisational dialogue

First, this essay will explore the definitions of dialogue as well as organizational cultures and how these concepts related to each other. It is followed by a discussion on the ways that dialogue may have positive effects regarding the cultural aspects. The final section of this essay pays attention to the challenges of and solutions to implementing and promoting dialogue within an organization. There Is a variety of deflations of dialogue.The derivation of this word stems from the Greek roots dialogs which consists of did and logos. Did means through, and logos means the word, or more specifically, the meaning of the word' (Boom 1996, p. 6). Based on its origin, Boom (1996) defines dialogue as a combination of communication practices flowing through and among people, focused on discovering the essence and power of people thinking and how the group's culture is built through this process.Isaacs (1999) believes that dialogue Is, In particular, a flow of meaning, while Gerard and Elea nor (2001 ) define dialogue by contrasting It with discussion and conclude that dialogue is seeing the whole and connections between arts, learning through asking and answering, and creating shared meaning among group members. In further similarities, Gerard and Turfs (1995) assume that dialogue is concerned with the environment where belief and communication diversity are encouraged In terms of respects, honors and values, as well as awareness to raise the creation of shared meaning.The role of dialogue in relation to organizational culture is of thorough understanding through many deferent organizational culture definitions. In fact, we all commonly think that it is the way we do things around but through research of organizational behavior, Machines, Lessons & Traveling (2013) believe it ‘consists of values and assumptions shared within an organization' (p. 448). At the same time, for E. C. Martins and F. Turbulence (2003), the central Ingredient of culture Inside an organi zation is the subconscious shared values and beliefs.A powerful culture offers shared values that ensure everyone in the organization focus on the same goals and objectives (Robbins, 1996). Organization has its culture usually performs higher in the market. In a word, the key feature of building and transforming organizational ultra Is creating and maintaining shared values that seem to be the main purposes of outlining dialogue among members. Through practicing dialogue, collective communication is created, and organizational culture is transformed. These aspects include transformation of member behavior, the experiential feeling of community and people's attitudes.Firstly, in the comparison between dialogue and discussion of Gerard and Eleanor (2001), the main role of dialogue is to help people learn how to communicate with each other differently and produce collective understanding. While in discussion, people intend to keep their opinions and only the most powerful and influence d person might decide the results of the whole group, dialogue, in contrast, gives members a commitment to a common set of guidelines (Gerard and Turfs 1995). Participants try to minimize conflicts and bring all different points of view into a standard value.Therefore, the more often people practice dialogue, the more behavioral changing they have to integrate and sustain in community. Moreover, based on Bomb's research in 1996, Isaacs (1999) stated four principles of dialogue which include listening, respecting, suspending and voicing. Among these principles, listening skill plays an important role in changing behavior of a group. As a whole song could not be sensed and understood through a single note (Isaacs 1999), organizational cultures and objectives are not able to be established by a single idea.Hence, dialogue is a powerful tool to encourage people to listen thoroughly to others' ideas and engage in the conversation. Then, shared meanings, or the culture of the company is g radually transformed. Secondly, by setting up the conditions of community, dialogue transforms the feeling of the corporation culture (Gerard and Turfs 1995). When a new group starts to involve in the community, dialogue will generate an atmosphere having the ‘experiential feel' (Gerard and Turfs 1995, p. 148) of community.In an organizational scope, employees commence to sense what the company's culture would seem to be in full community based on its principles. Furthermore, for Sense (1995), dialogue is as a facilitator for team learning. He believes that team is the key feature to create shared values, and through the application of dialogue into team learning process, knowledge and feeling of the community cultures are transferred from one to others, ND individual's values as well as beliefs are positively transformed and integrated into the collective cultures.The final aspect that dialogue has the power to change the organizational culture is attitudinal transformation. As participants experience the effects of dialogue, the attitude level becomes as a ‘byproduct of the incorporation of new modes of behavior and learning the â€Å"feel† of what being in community is like' (Gerard and Turfs 1995, p. 148). Then, cooperative and collaborative attitudes start to replace the attitudes of inflexible individualism. This statement is conformable with the research f Scheme (1993) where he describes dialogue as talking around the campfire' (p. 391).During the past time, meetings were usually held around a campfire where people could simply share their opinion without any discussion or arguments. Through that, (Scheme 1993) and spend time listening to others' opinions before reflecting on their assumptions. Moreover, Isaacs (1999) also emphasized the main goal of the respecting principle of dialogue that is not to seek a decision, but to tolerate difference, gap and conflict. Therefore, the more people practice dialogue, the more hey have collect ive orientation by gradually changing their individualistic behavior, and then, the whole organizational culture is enhanced.Although dialogue has been proved to have a positive effect on organizational culture, people still face challenges in applying it into organization learning system. First, most organizations are generally a hierarchy and authorized structure which is contrary to the principles of dialogue (Boom, 1996), so employees tend to afraid of expressing their ideas or opinions to the people who are at higher level. In fact, in some top-down companies, managers have the right to create and change organizational culture as well as enforce rules and delegate duties to employees.Although it has its value, this structure might find it difficult to get dialogue going. Moreover, there are situations where people have different ideas and assumptions, and dialogue might become frustrated. If someone is not willing to listen to other's assumptions, it is considered as an act of violence (Boom, 1996) which may lead to an argument and no results could be concluded. And last but not least, in case of a cross-culture organization, dialogue becomes a more complicated and lengthy Scheme 1993) process due to the different cultural backgrounds of the employees.Then, it is necessary for companies to allocate more time and resources in designing dialogue process that may help employees communicate effectively, and the organizational culture is transformed on the right track. Despite all these challenges, dialogue still plays a significant role in transforming organizational culture if companies have methods and strategies to apply it appropriately. Sense (2006) gives a simple analysis about balancing dialogue and discussion within members of an organization. As ‘in a discussion, decisions are made.In a dialogue, complex issues are explored' (Sense 2006, p. 230), learning team must learn how to control movement back and forth between dialogue and discussion and distinguish between the ground rules and the goals to have both dialogue and constructive discussion. Communication audit is another approach to deal with the organizational practice of dialogue. For Harrier and Tourist (2004), communication audit is the key to creating a world-class communication system since the results of communicating performance among all staffs is accurately reported to the managers.This process is effective to solve problems both in top-down organization and cross-culture since it reveals communication strengths and weaknesses among employees at all levels as well as suggests solutions for improvement. In conclusion, dialogue has proved itself as an effective but challenging way of transforming organizational culture. Through behavioral, experiential and attitudinal transformation, corporation culture is positively changed as dialogue awareness of the collective assumptions, minimize arguments and by practicing dialogue, people learn how to accept the differ ences of others.

Tom Sawyer

The Adventures of Tom Sawyer Whether or not many have read the book, Mark Twain’s â€Å"The Adventures of Tom Sawyer† has been referenced numerous times in social media. It has been used in media in such formats as movies and cartoons. Because of this, many believe Tom Sawyer to be a children’s book, while others believe it to be a more literal adult influenced novel. With the many outside influences such as religion, writing styles, and the author’s opinions it can be argued that Mark Twain’s â€Å"The Adventures of Tom Sawyer† can be seen as either a children’s book or an adult’s novel.Many believe it is more suited as an adult book. The Influence of religion in any storyline can affect the plot greatly. â€Å"If we maintain the implicit conjunction between the Bible and Tom’s books, this can be read as a very serious critique of the abuses of religion† (McIntosh-Byrd 15). In his critique, Byrd states how religio n is often seen as the only way to go. Many don’t know any different and therefore Byrd believes the book to be more centered on religion and its constant critique. â€Å"The fact that both of these scenes take place within the church in indicative of an implicit critique of the role of religion in St.Petersburg† (McIntosh-Byrd 15). Again here Byrd says that religion has changed the storyline somewhat. Because of these reasons it can be argued that Tom Sawyer is more suited for adults because adults can understand what Twain was trying to say more and he knew this by the way he wrote. The different writing styles in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer change the audiences that the story appeals to. â€Å"These defects of structure would probably not appreciate the flexibility of the narrative, it’s easy, casual gait. † (Doren 431).From this view, Mark Twain’s â€Å"The Adventures of Tom Sawyer,† can be seen as more of a children’s book becau se of its easy going nature. The lack of responsibility in this book translates well to children. â€Å"But Tom’s energy did not last. He began to think of the fun he had planned for this day, and his sorrows multiplied. † (Twain 12) Many are without responsibilities and hope to never gain any. â€Å"Mark Twain drives with careless, sagging reins, but he holds the general direction. † (Doren 431) Twain keeps a general hold on the story but he allows the characters to roam bout freely, which makes it more kid friendly, in the sense that the kids want to feel like they are truly in charge. â€Å"And when the middle of the afternoon came, from being a poor, poverty-stricken boy in the morning, Tom was literally rolling in wealth. † (Twain 15) The different writing styles affected the story in one way but at the same time it can affect it in the other opposite direction. On the other side of the spectrum, this book can be seen as an adult’s novel based on the writing styles evident in the text. Twain borrowed its structure from several literary genres popular in the United States during the late nineteenth century: Local color-fiction, Juvenile fiction, sentimental romance, and the dime thriller† (De Santis). Adults can handle a lot more styles in books such as these. â€Å"The Adventures of Tom Sawyer†¦Represented an attempt to cultivate the gentled, eastern-seaboard audience currently enthralled by local-color fiction. † (Baetzhold) Again here critic has noticed the same trend. Local-color or regional literature is fiction and poetry that focuses on the characters of a story.This is evident in De Santis’ critique of â€Å"The Adventures of Tom Sawyer†. Noticing the author’s opinions the reader can tell whether they meant for their book to be a children’s book or an adult’s piece of literature. â€Å"It had no history, and no future, existing in the framed bookends of the aut hor’s comments at the beginning and end of the tale. † (McIntosh-Byrd 15) Twain’s opinions about the way things should be in society affects the story. Say another writer had written about the exact same topic it would be completely different. Twain put a lot of his own thoughts and beliefs into his story. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer is an extremely difficult work to approach analytically because it is so embedded in the author’s own childhood. † (McIntosh-Byrd 13) It has been argued that the town of St. Petersburg in the story was Twain’s interpretation of his childhood hometown. â€Å"Uncertain whether it should be aimed at a youthful or an adult audience, Mark Twain once more submerged in the shadow the realistic aspects of puberty, removing portions of the book which might offend younger readers. † (Baetzhold) if Twain didn’t remove these portions f the story it would have definitely been focused towards a more mature audien ce. Since he did it is more appropriate that â€Å"The Adventures of Tom Sawyer† be focused more on the youthful audience. With the many outside influences such as religion, writing styles, and the author’s opinions it can be argued that Mark Twain’s â€Å"The Adventures of Tom Sawyer† can be seen as either a children’s book or an adult’s novel. The book was originally written as an adult’s novel, but over the years since it has been written it has slowly been more closely analyzed as a children’s book.

Bering Strait - Geographic Overview

Bering Strait - Geographic Overview The Bering Land Bridge, also known as the Bering Strait, was a land bridge connecting present-day eastern Siberia and the United States state of Alaska during Earths historic ice ages. For reference, Beringia is another name used to describe the Bering Land Bridge and it was coined in the mid-20th century by Eric Hulten, a Swedish botanist, who was studying plants in Alaska and northeastern Siberia. At the time of his study, he began using the word Beringia as a geographic description of the area. Beringia was about 1,000 miles (1,600 km) north to south at its widest point and was present at different times during the Pleistocene Epochs ice ages from 2.5 million to 12,000 years before the present (BP). It is significant to the study of geography because it is believed that humans migrated from the Asian continent to North America via the Bering Land Bridge during the last glaciation about 13,000-10,000 years BP. Much of what we know about the Bering Land Bridge today aside from its physical presence comes from biogeographical data showing connections between species on the Asian and North American continents. For example, there is evidence that saber tooth cats, woolly mammoths, various ungulates, and plants were on both continents around the last ice age and there would have been little way for them to appear on both without the presence of a land bridge. In addition, modern technology has been able to use this biogeographical evidence, as well as modeling of climate, sea levels, and mapping of the sea floor between present-day Siberia and Alaska to visually depict the Bering Land Bridge. Formation and Climate During the ice ages of the Pleistocene Epoch, global sea levels fell significantly in many areas around the world as the Earths water and precipitation became frozen in large continental ice sheets and glaciers. As these ice sheets and glaciers grew, global sea levels fell and in several places across the planet different land bridges became exposed. The Bering Land Bridge between eastern Siberia and Alaska was one of these. The Bering Land Bridge is believed to have existed through numerous ice ages from earlier ones around 35,000 years ago to more recent ice ages around 22,000-7,000 years ago. Most recently, it is believed that the strait between Siberia and Alaska became dry land about 15,500 years before the present, but by 6,000 years before the present, the strait was again closed due to a warming climate and rising sea levels. During the latter period, the coastlines of eastern Siberia and Alaska developed roughly the same shapes they have today. During the time of the Bering Land Bridge, it should be noted that the area between Siberia and Alaska was not glaciated like the surrounding continents because snowfall was very light in the region. This is because the wind blowing into the area from the Pacific Ocean lost its moisture before reaching Beringia when it was forced to rise over the Alaska Range in central Alaska. However, because of its very high latitude, the region would have had a similar cold and harsh climate as is in northwestern Alaska and eastern Siberia today. Flora and Fauna Because the Bering Land Bridge was not glaciated and precipitation was light, grasslands were most common on the Bering Land Bridge itself and for hundreds of miles into the Asian and North American continents. It is believed that there were very few trees and all vegetation consisted of grasses and low-lying plants and shrubs. Today, the region surrounding what remains of Beringia in northwestern Alaska and eastern Siberia still features grasslands with very few trees. The fauna of the Bering Land Bridge consisted mainly of large and small ungulates adapted to grassland environments. In addition, fossils indicate that species such as saber-toothed cats, woolly mammoths, and other large and small mammals were present on the Bering Land Bridge as well. It is also believed that when the Bering Land Bridge began to flood with rising sea levels during the end of the last ice age, these animals moved south into what is today the main North American continent. Human Evolution One of the most important things about the Bering Land Bridge is that it enabled humans to cross the Bering Sea and enter North America during the last ice age about 12,000 years ago. It is believed that these early settlers were following migrating mammals across the Bering Land Bridge and for a time may have settled on the bridge itself. As the Bering Land Bridge began to flood once again with the end of the ice age, however, humans and the animals they were following moved south along coastal North America. To learn more about the Bering Land Bridge and its status as a national preserve park today, visit the National Park Services website. References National Park Service. (2010, February 1). Bering Land Bridge National Preserve (U.S. National Park Service. Retrieved from: https://www.nps.gov/bela/index.htm Wikipedia. (2010, March 24). Beringia - Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beringia

The Marco Polo Bridge Incident

The Marco Polo Bridge Incident The Marco Polo Bridge Incident of July 7 - 9, 1937 marks the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War, which also represents the beginning of World War II in Asia.   What was the incident, and how did it spark nearly a decade of fighting between two of Asias great powers?   Background: Relations between China and Japan were chilly, to say the least, even prior to the Marco Polo Bridge Incident.   The Empire of Japan had annexed Korea, formerly a Chinese tributary state, in 1910, and had invaded and occupied Manchuria following the Mukden Incident in 1931.   Japan had spent the five years leading up to the Marco Polo Bridge Incident gradually seizing ever-larger sections of northern and eastern China, encircling Beijing.   Chinas de facto government, the Kuomintang led by Chiang Kai-shek, was based further south in Nanjing, but Beijing was still a strategically pivotal city. The key to Beijing was the Marco Polo Bridge, named of course for the Italian trader Marco Polo who visited Yuan China in the 13th century and described an earlier iteration of the bridge.   The modern bridge, near the town of Wanping, was the only road and rail link between Beijing and the Kuomintangs stronghold in Nanjing.   The Japanese Imperial Army had been trying to pressure China to withdraw from the area around the bridge, without success. The Incident: In the early summer of 1937, Japan began to carry out military training exercises near the bridge.   They always warned the local inhabitants, to prevent panic, but on July 7, 1937, the Japanese commenced training without prior notice to the Chinese.   The local Chinese garrison at Wanping, believing that they were under attack, fired a few scattered shots, and the Japanese returned fire.   In the confusion, a Japanese private went missing, and his commanding officer demanded that the Chinese allow the Japanese troops to enter and search the town for him. The Chinese refused.   The Chinese army offered to conduct the search, which the Japanese commander agreed to, but some Japanese infantry troops tried to push their way in to the town regardless.   Chinese troops garrisoned in town fired on the Japanese and drove them away. With events spiraling out of control, both sides called for reinforcements.   Shortly before 5 am on July 8, the Chinese allowed two Japanese investigators in to Wanping to search for the missing soldier.   Nonetheless, the Imperial Army opened fire with four mountain guns at 5:00, and Japanese tanks rolled down the Marco Polo Bridge shortly thereafter.   One hundred Chinese defenders fought to hold the bridge; only four of them survived.   The Japanese overran the bridge, but Chinese reinforcements retook it the following morning, July 9. Meanwhile, in Beijing, the two sides negotiated a settlement of the incident.   The terms were that China would apologize for the incident, responsible officers on both sides would be punished, Chinese troops in the area would be replaced by the civilian Peace Preservation Corps, and the Chinese Nationalist government would better control communist elements in the area.   In return, Japan would withdraw from the immediate area of Wanping and the Marco Polo Bridge.   Representatives of China and Japan signed this accord on July 11 at 11:00 am. The national governments of both countries saw the skirmish as an insignificant local incident, and it should have ended with the settlement agreement.   However, the Japanese Cabinet held a press conference to announce the settlement, in which it also announced the mobilization of three new army divisions, and harshly warned the Chinese government in Nanjing not to interfere with the local solution to the Marco Polo Bridge Incident.   This incendiary cabinet statement caused Chiang Kaisheks government to react by sending four divisions of additional troops to the area.   Soon, both sides were violating the truce agreement.   The Japanese shelled Wanping on July 20, and by the end of July the Imperial Army had surrounded Tianjin and Beijing.   Even though neither side likely had planned to go into an all-out war, tensions were incredibly high.   When a Japanese naval officer was assassinated in Shanghai on August 9, 1937, the Second Sino-Japanese War broke out in earnest.   It would transition in to the Second World War, ending only with Japans surrender on September 2, 1945.

Pledge of Allegiance and Freedom of Religion Essay

Pledge of Allegiance and Freedom of Religion - Essay Example He believed that the Pledge of Allegiance, due to the inclusion of the phrase â€Å"under one God† violated the Establishment Clause of the constitution that clearly states that Congress shall never enact any â€Å"law respecting the establishment of religion†. He believed that the phrase infringed on his right to raise his daughter based upon his personal religious beliefs. The United States Pledge of Allegiance does include a reference to â€Å"one God† in the latter part of the pledge and this is oftentimes challenged by others who misunderstand the reference to one god as an endorsement of a specific religion rather than a unifying statement meant to bring the country together, united under a belief that there is a God. Not that there is only one God being promoted as the sole religion of the nation. It is not possible for the people who wrote the pledge to endorse any single religion because of the Establishment Clause in the First Amendment. However, the United States is a country that was established upon many religious beliefs which helped unite the nation and our forebears wished to make reference to the same in the pledge. There was actually nothing political about it when the pledge was originally written. A political religious statement was the farthest thing from the minds of the authors of the pledge. Michael Newdow, the man who dog gedly pursued the case all the way to the United State Supreme Court was the non custodial father of a daughter who attended school in the Elk Grove Unified School District. It was his belief that the pledge violated his right to educate his child in the religion of his belief which is why he pursued an Establishment Clause argument against the phrase he deemed offensive to himself and his beliefs. Unlucky for him, both the lower courts and the U.S. Supreme Court did not find any reason to side with him in their rulings. He failed in all 3 of his attempts to pursue the case. It was the decision of the Supreme Court that the phrase â€Å"one nation under God† could not be challenged (â€Å"Court Dismisses Pledge Suit†) even while not clearly defining the separation between church and state. One of the reasons that Newdow lost his case was because he was not the legal guardian of his daughter. His ex-wife had sole legal custody of the child which also covered the decisio n as to where and how she would be attending school. As such, he did not have any legal authority on behalf of his daughter to file suit against the school district. It was the opinion of the court that the children who recite the Pledge of Allegiance do so without any violation to the U.S constitution. The judges who favored this ruling include Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist, Sandra Day O'Connor, and Clarence Thomas. The Establishment Clause is one part of the U.S Constitution that often comes under fire from the atheists and other religious groups because of their belief that Congress often tries to force religion upon people even though the First Amendment clearly states that â€Å"Congress shall make no law respecting the establishment of a religion.† That is why under the Establishment Clause, there are provisions that prohibit the establishment of a national religion by Congress and does not allow the U.S. government to have a preference for one religion over anothe r. This is the point where misinterpretations often occur. There is a common misinterpretation that the Pledge of Allegiance promotes Christianity. That is because our constitution was founded upon the Christian principles that existed during that time. As such, most of the policies from that era reflect that belief. But the pledge does not specifically make mention of a â€Å"Christian God†